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Sidney Leavitt Pressey (Brooklyn, New York, 1888 1979) was Professor of Psychology at Ohio State University for many years. He is famous for having invented a teaching machine many years before the idea became popular. :"The first.. (machine ) was developed by Sidney L. Pressey... While originally developed as a self-scoring machine... () demonstrated its ability to actually teach".〔Hilgard E.R. & Bower G.H. 1966. ''Theories of learning''. 3rd ed, New York:Appleton-Century-Crofts. Chapter 16: Learning & the technology of instruction, 554561 Programmed learning.〕 Pressey joined Ohio State in 1921, and stayed there until he retired in 1959. He continued publishing after retirement, with 18 papers between 1959 and 1967.〔Anderson, Lorin W. 2002. Pressey, Sidney L. (1888–1979). In ''Encyclopedia of Education''. ()〕 He was a cognitive psychologist who "rejected a view of learning as an accumulation of responses governed by environmental stimuli in favor of one governed by meaning, intention, and purpose".〔 In fact, he had been a cognitive psychologist his entire life, well before the "mythical birthday of the cognitive revolution in psychology".〔Bruner, Jerome S. 1992. Another look at New Look 1. ''American Psychologist''. 47, 780–783.〕 == The 'teaching machine' == Pressey's idea started as a machine for administering multiple-choice questions (MCQs) to students. MCQs were (and are still) a basic method for testing students in the U.S.A. Pressey's machine had a window with a question and four answers. The student pressed the key to the chosen answer. The machine recorded the answer on a counter to the back of the machine, and showed the next question. The great idea was to fix the machine so that it would not move on until the student chose the right answer. Then it was easy to show that this second arrangement taught the students which were the right answers. This was the first demonstration that a machine could teach, and also a demonstration that knowledge of results was the cause of the learning.〔Pressey S.L. 1926. A simple apparatus which gives tests and scores and teaches. ''School and Society'', 23 (586), 373–376.〕〔Pressey S.L. 1927. A machine for automatic teaching of drill material. ''School and Society'', 25 (645), 549–552.〕〔Pressey S.L. 1932. A third and fourth contribution toward the coming "industrial revolution" in education. ''School and Society'', 36 (934), 668–672.〕 This kind of feedback to the learner is basic: it just tells the learner whether they are right or not. Later work on other kinds of learning material showed that even better results were got when the feedback contained more explanatory material.〔Lumsdaine A.A. 1965. Experimental results on instructional devices and materials. In Glaser R. (ed) ''Training research and education''. New York: Wiley, especially 258–266.〕〔Annett J. 1964. The role of knowledge of results in learning: a survey. In ''Educational Technology'', De Cecco (ed), Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 279–285.〕 Pressey continued to improve his devices after World War II,〔Pressey 1950. Development and appraisal of devices providing immediate automatic scoring of objective tests and concomitant self instruction. ''Journal of Psychology'', 29, 417–447.〕 and the papers of Pressey and his colleagues are reprinted in a leading sourcebook.〔 A number of reviews credit Pressey with being the originator of teaching machines, and of important aspects of programmed learning. This was long before the better known efforts of B.F. Skinner.〔Lumsdaine A.A. 1963. Instruments and media of instruction. In N.L. Gage (ed) ''Handbook of research on teaching''. Chicago: AERA and Rand McNally, 592 (auto-instructional methods), 620 (differential feedback).〕〔Lumsdaine A.A & Glaser R. (eds) 1960. ''Teaching machines and programed learning: a source book''. Washington D.C. National Education Association.〕〔Crowder N. 1959. Automatic tutoring by means of intrinsic programming. In Galanter E.H. (ed) ''Automatic teaching: the state of the art''. New York: Wiley, 109–116.〕 The review by Klaus gave a special appreciation of Pressey and his work.〔Klaus D.J. 1965. Analysis of programming techniques. In Glaser R. (ed) ''Teaching machines and programmed learning II: data and directions''. Washington D.C. Department of Audiovisual Instruction, National Education Association, 144–147.〕 Skinner, who was responsible for bringing the whole subject into popular view, acknowledged Pressey's work in his 1958 paper on teaching machines.〔Skinner B.F. 1958. Teaching machines. ''Science'' 128, 969–977, reprinted in Skinner 1965.〕〔Skinner B.F. 1965. ''The technology of teaching''. Appleton-Century-Croft. Includes reprints of Skinner's earlier papers on programmed learning, and discusses the limitations of classroom teaching in several places, such as chapter 5 Why teachers fail, and chapter 10 A review of teaching.〕 Pressey's own term was "adjunct autoinstruction". He thought it important to follow learning by questions "to enhance the clarity and stability of cognitive structure by correcting misapprehensions, and deferring the instruction of new matter until there had been such clarification and elucidation".〔Pressey S.L. 1951. Teaching machines (and learning theory) crisis. ''J. Applied Psychology'' 47, 1-6.〕 The topic itself might be programmed, or it might not.〔Pressey S.L. 1964. Auto elucidation without programming. ''NSPI Journal'' 3, 12-13.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Sidney L. Pressey」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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